Did Britain Truly Offer Freedom, or Was It Just Another Form of Betrayal? Simon Schama’s ‘Rough Crossings’ Forces a Painful Reckoning
What if the American Revolution’s fight for liberty was actually a fight to keep slavery alive? Simon Schama’s Rough Crossings reveals the shocking true story of the 100,000 enslaved Africans who escaped to British lines, and the brutal betrayal that followed.
Overview
Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution is not just another history book about the American Revolution. It is a gripping, often infuriating, and deeply human epic that turns the entire narrative of the Founding Fathers on its head.
Simon Schama, the celebrated historian and author of Citizens and The Embarrassment of Riches, masterfully tells the story of tens of thousands of enslaved African Americans who made a shocking choice during the War of Independence: they sided with the British.
At the heart of this book lies a single, devastating question that Schama poses early on: if you were black in America at the start of the Revolutionary War, who would you want to win?
For the enslaved, the answer was often the British Crown. Schama shows that while white Patriots like Washington and Jefferson were fighting for liberty, they were simultaneously fighting to preserve slavery. As the book powerfully states, for many Southern slaveholders, “Theirs was a revolution, first and foremost, mobilized to protect slavery.”
What follows is an astonishing odyssey: from the bloody swamps of South Carolina and the siege of Savannah to the frozen wastelands of Nova Scotia, and eventually to the shores of Sierra Leone in Africa.
It is a story of hope, betrayal, and the relentless pursuit of freedom. But Schama does not let the British off the hook either.
The book details how Britain’s promise of freedom was often a cynical military tactic, and how many black loyalists were ultimately abandoned, left to starve or die from disease.
Reader Recommendation: Who Will Actually Love Rough Crossings?
Let me be direct: you will love Rough Crossings if you are tired of the sanitized, feel-good mythology of the American Revolution. If you have ever wondered what the phrase “all men are created equal” actually meant to the 20% of the colonial population who were enslaved, this book is for you.
However, you might bounce off this book if you prefer straightforward, linear narratives. Schama writes with a novelist’s flair, his prose is dense, vivid, and occasionally digressive. He is not just recounting facts; he is building a cinematic world. At nearly 450 pages, it requires commitment. Also, if you are looking for a simple story of British virtue, you will not find it here.
Schama is fiercely critical of British hypocrisy as well, making this an uncomfortable read on both sides of the Atlantic.
Ideal readers: History buffs, students of African American studies, fans of narrative non-fiction, and anyone who wants to understand the deep roots of America’s racial contradictions.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
- Full Title: Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution
- Author: Simon Schama
- Publication Details: First published by BBC Books in 2005 (UK) and Ecco in 2006 (US). The book spans 445 pages and won the 2006 National Book Critics Circle Award for General Nonfiction.
Context
Simon Schama is a University Professor of History and Art History at Columbia University and a writer for The New Yorker. He is known for his ability to weave grand historical narratives with intimate personal stories, as seen in his works on the French Revolution (Citizens) and Dutch culture.
In Rough Crossings, he shifts his focus to the Atlantic world, exploring the entanglement of the American Revolution, slavery, and the British Empire.
Purpose
The central thesis of Rough Crossings is to reclaim the history of the “Black Loyalists”, the tens of thousands of enslaved Africans who escaped to British lines during the Revolutionary War. Schama argues that for these individuals, “it was the royal, rather than the republican, road that seemed to offer a surer chance of liberty.”
The book seeks to deconstruct the national identities of Britain and America, showing that the struggle for freedom was a transatlantic, messy, and often tragic affair.
2. Background
Before diving into the narrative, it is crucial to understand the background. When the American Revolution broke out in 1775, the population of the colonies was roughly 2.5 million. Of these, about 20% were enslaved Africans, rising to 40% in Virginia.
The Patriots spoke of liberty, but they owned slaves. This hypocrisy did not go unnoticed by the enslaved. In November 1775, the British Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, issued a proclamation offering freedom to any slave who escaped from a rebel master and joined the British forces. This was a pragmatic military decision, Dunmore was outnumbered, but it was also a revolutionary act.
In response, between 80,000 and 100,000 slaves left their plantations during the war. A quarter of South Carolina’s slave population and a third of Georgia’s left to join the British. This mass flight is what Schama calls the “dirty little secret” of the Revolution.
It forces us to see the war not just as a fight between Patriots and Loyalists, but as a war involving a desperate third party: the enslaved seeking their own liberation.
3. Rough Crossings Summary
Schama divides the book into two parts, named after the two key English abolitionists who shaped the fate of the Black Loyalists: Granville Sharp (“Greeny”) and John Clarkson.
Part One: “Greeny” – The Promise of British Freedom
The story begins in England. Schama introduces us to Granville Sharp, a music-loving clerk at the Ordnance Office. In 1765, Sharp encountered a young enslaved man named Jonathan Strong, who had been beaten so severely by his master that his face was “reduced to crimson gore.” This encounter sparked Sharp’s lifelong obsession with the law.
Sharp’s legal battles culminated in the landmark Somerset case of 1772. James Somerset was a slave brought to England who escaped and was recaptured.
Lord Mansfield, the Chief Justice, ruled that Somerset could not be forcibly sent out of England. While the ruling was narrow, it was widely interpreted in the American colonies as meaning that slavery was illegal in England. This news spread like wildfire among the plantations. As Schama notes, escaped slaves believed “they had a royal licence to disobey.”
The Dunmore Proclamation (1775):
Schama then moves to America. When the war broke out, Lord Dunmore declared martial law and promised freedom to slaves who joined the British. Schama describes the formation of Lord Dunmore’s Ethiopian Regiment, whose uniforms bore the motto “Liberty to Slaves.” This was a direct attack on the economic foundation of the Southern colonies.
However, the British were not saints. Schama does not shy away from the horrors. When Dunmore’s fleet was ravaged by smallpox, he abandoned the sick on Gwynn’s Island. When American soldiers landed, they found hundreds of dead bodies, with some still “gasping for life.”
The Siege of Savannah (1779):
The book provides a vivid account of the siege of Savannah, where black loyalist soldiers fought alongside the British. Schama writes that “250 armed blacks stood in the centre of the defenders on the ramparts, some of them manning the guns, slaves waiting to kill their masters.” One black loyalist, David George, a Baptist preacher, survived the siege and eventually became a leader among the settlers.
Colonel Tye and the Guerrilla War:
In the North, Schama tells the story of Colonel Tye, a former slave from New Jersey who became a legendary guerrilla leader. Tye led the “Black Brigade,” raiding Patriot farms and taking prisoners. He was killed in action in 1780 while attempting to capture a Patriot captain. Schama notes that “some of the most implacable actions were taken against Patriot irregulars” by these black loyalists.
Part Two: “John” – The Betrayal and the Exodus
After the British defeat at Yorktown in 1781, the fate of the Black Loyalists hung in the balance.
The Treaty of Paris (1783):
Schama highlights a shocking moment. Henry Laurens, a South Carolina plantation owner and former President of the Continental Congress, ensured that Article VII of the Treaty of Paris forbade the British from “carrying away” American property, which specifically included slaves. This meant the British were supposed to return the escaped slaves to their masters.
Sir Guy Carleton’s Decision:
However, the British commander, Sir Guy Carleton, refused to betray the Black Loyalists. In a tense meeting with George Washington, Carleton declared that “no Interpretation could be put on the Articles inconsistent with prior Engagements binding the National Honour which must be kept with all colours.” He facilitated the evacuation of over 3,000 Black Loyalists from New York to Nova Scotia.
The Nova Scotia Nightmare:
The “promised land” of Nova Scotia turned out to be a frozen hell. The white Loyalists conspired to deny the blacks their land. Fewer than half of the 3,500 black settlers received any land. Schama writes of the Shelburne Riots of 1784, where a white mob attacked the black community, tearing down houses.
Boston King, a Black Loyalist whose memoirs Schama uses extensively, wrote of how “people died so fast, that it was difficult to procure burial for them.”
The Sierra Leone Experiment:
The second half of the book follows Thomas Peters, a former sergeant in the Black Pioneers. Peters travelled to London to petition the government for relief. There, he met Granville Sharp and John Clarkson (Thomas Clarkson’s brother), who were organizing a settlement in Sierra Leone.
In 1792, John Clarkson led a fleet of 15 ships carrying 1,196 Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone. Schama writes that Clarkson promised them equality. In Freetown, the settlers created the first elected black government in Africa, with black juries and constables.
But the dream did not last. The Sierra Leone Company (run by white abolitionists) imposed quit rents and oppressive policies. In 1800, the settlers revolted. The British crushed the rebellion with the help of Jamaican Maroons.
4. Analysis: My Opinion and Commentary
Reading Rough Crossings was a profoundly unsettling experience. Schama writes with the passion of a novelist and the rigor of a scholar. He makes you feel the mud of the swamps, the cold of Nova Scotia, and the burning hope of the escaped slaves.
What struck me most was Schama’s ability to present the British as both liberators and betrayers. On one hand, they offered freedom. On the other, they cynically used the black loyalists as a military tool and then abandoned them. Schama’s description of the British releasing “seven hundred smallpox-infected Negroes” to infect the American army is a chilling reminder of the brutality of the era.
I also appreciated Schama’s focus on individuals. The stories of Thomas Peters, Boston King, and David George are not just footnotes to history; they are the backbone of the narrative. Schama gives them agency. They are not passive victims; they are political leaders, soldiers, and preachers who shaped their own destinies as much as they could.
Does the book fulfill its purpose? Absolutely. Schama successfully deconstructs the myth of the American Revolution as a purely “white” fight for liberty. He also challenges the British narrative of moral superiority. By the end, the reader understands that the struggle for freedom was a “rough crossing”, a dangerous, chaotic journey with no clear happy ending.
5. Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
- Compelling Narrative: Schama is a master storyteller. The book reads like a thriller at times.
- Human Focus: By following real individuals, Schama makes the history accessible and emotional.
- Historical Revisionism: The book forces the reader to reconsider the Founding Fathers and the meaning of the Revolution. As The New York Times noted, it is “a stirringly ambitious reconsideration of the Revolution with the question of slavery set at the very heart of the matter.”
- Depth of Research: The book is meticulously researched, drawing on memoirs, court records, and letters.
Weaknesses
- Density: Schama’s prose can be overwrought. Some readers may find the detailed descriptions exhausting.
- Lack of Focus on Patriot Blacks: As one critic noted, Schama has “virtually nothing to say about black soldiers who fought on the patriot side.” This is a notable omission.
- Anglocentric Lens: The book is framed as a British story. While this is the point, it sometimes minimizes the agency of African Americans who chose to stay and fight for the United States.
6. Comparison with Similar Works
Rough Crossings stands alongside other essential works on Black Loyalists, such as Benjamin Quarles’ The Negro in the American Revolution and Sylvia R. Frey’s Water from the Rock.
However, Schama differs from these historians in his approach. Quarles provides a more straightforward military history, while Frey focuses on the social dynamics of the South. Schama, on the other hand, places the story within the broader context of British abolitionism and the settlement of Sierra Leone.
This gives Rough Crossings a unique transatlantic scope that other books lack. It is less about the war itself and more about the aftermath, the painful odyssey of the refugees.
7. Conclusion
Rough Crossings is an outstanding and poignant work of history. It is a necessary corrective to the triumphalist narratives of the American Revolution. It reminds us that for millions of people, the “Fourth of July” was not a day of liberation, but a day of mourning.
As Schama quotes Frederick Douglass: “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?”
Recommendation: I recommend this book to anyone interested in American history, African American studies, or the history of the British Empire.
It is suitable for general audiences, though it requires patience with the dense prose. If you are ready to have your assumptions challenged and your heart broken, pick up Rough Crossings. It will change the way you view the birth of the United States.
